colonial education in png pdf

In political terms, colonialism is often assumed to be a temporary phenomenon. During this period there was a scramble for colonies in the African continent. Based on Parson's underlying assumption that there is only "one system", modernisation theory suggests people in the "traditional" societies or "backward nations" should adopt the characteristics of modern societies in order to modernise their social and economic institutions (Larrain, 1991). In addition, the surplus capital was also invested to enable secondary industries to be established as part of the extension of industrial networks. A further 35 percent are engaged in the informal commercial activities producing cash crops, whilst the other 51 percent are either dependent on the subsistence economy or are unemployed (PNG Education Sector Review, 1991:1). Instead, the contemporary expressions of colonialism are now linked to the global movement of capital and to the activities of large multinational companies. The Indian social theorist, Nandy (1983), has developed these ideas further with the use of insights obtained from the Italian sociologist, Gramsci (1978), and the Algerian political writer, Fanon (1967). These interactions pose challenges and create stresses which have resulted in a struggle to establish the legitimacy of the new groups, including the state itself. The Fifth Directive in the National Constitution refers to Papua New Guinea Ways. It is a society's capacity to exploit the material resources found in the natural environment that characterises its stage of development. This colonialist thinking also conflicted with the Agreement of the United Nations under which Australia had accepted the responsibility to govern the Territory. In 1952, there were about 1,200 Australian public servants in the Territory, most of whom were appointed while still in their early twenties. However, in 1901, Britain sought to transfer the responsibility of governing Papua to Australia. They argued that there was no single motivation, no single originating idea, that explains colonialism. They became involved in the hunting of whales as well. In other words, they viewed the Gospel through the narrow lenses of the European culture, and thus found it difficult to project a wider concept of Christianity. Having had their own indigenous resources--both material and social--stripped, they are now at the mercy of international monetary agencies (Morss, 1991). This web site has some of the most comprehensive information on the non-governmental-organisations (NGOs) working in Papua New Guineaa (PNG) and also provides a hosting service for NGOs presently unable to design and host their own sites. New cultural forms are emerging throughout Papua New Guinea, partly as a consequence of the incursion of western values and institutions (Reed, 1983; Wolfers, 1992:248), and partly in response to greater communication among different tribal groups. As an academic at the University of Papua New Guinea suggests: ... the Papua New Guineans do not have this spirit of Nationalism. It is suggested that it was the importation and exploitation of cheap raw materials from the colonies that enabled the rapid growth of capitalism in Europe. The Report also criticised Australian policies for their failure to attend to the issues of indigenous economic development. Development is therefore that process which characterises the growth of a nation-state within this historical cycle. John Gunther, a colonial administrator, writes the article “More English, More Teachers” arguing that Papua New Guinea’s education system did not need to use local languages. This pattern of dependency is most evident in the government's expenditure of more than K9 million annually as discretionary funds (Budget Speech, 1993). These cultures are moreover not static; they are constantly changing in response to new pressures, accommodating some trends, while resisting or rejecting others (Carrier and Carrier, 1989). Understandably, the arrangement created considerable tensions between traditional and imposed leaderships. The capital, manpower and technology come in the form of foreign aid either as grants or loans. There were also changes to the administration with Canberra assuming direct control of the Territory. With the passage of time, and often as a result of a long struggle, either by peaceful or violent means, nations obtain political independence, which is assumed to mark the end of colonial rule, signified by the exodus of colonial rulers and an end to their dominance and influence. In the ninetieth century, there were a wide variety of reasons given for colonial activity. From early 1800s, they began to lay claims to land that was not theirs, dispossessing the traditional landowners in an arbitrary fashion. Wolfers (1993:247) argues: the composition of traditional communities has never been static or absolutely fixed. It continued to receive little attention by curriculum administrators, or schools. Spybey (1992:15) points out that each of the four models incorporates a range of functionalist assumptions which "involves a gradual process of change, stipulated by increasing industrialisation and accommodated by the differentiation, adoption and integration of social institutions". Another response to the Foot Report was the establishment in 1965 of a Committee of ten advisers from the World Bank to recommend ways to improve the Territory's economy and its industries (Downs, 1980). The names, Papua and New Guinea, are thus not local in origin but have nevertheless come to be accepted as part of the nation's colonial legacy (Nelson, 1974 :163). This concept laid the foundation of a framework of economic policies that the colonial government developed (Fisk, 1966). In political and social theory, there are few concepts as ambiguous as that of development. The appointment of a Governor and an Executive Council in Papua did not however lead to any substantial administrative changes. While humanitarian or philanthropic motives are still invoked, it is clear they have become secondary to a concern for economic gains. However, after independence, key elements of the Constable system have been retained, creating conditions for considerable conflict between villagers on the one hand, and the new indigenous political and administrative elite arising out of the Constable system, on the other. The cash economy capacity of the country is very limited. Parson's thinking has been influential in informing the modernisation theory. Unfortunately, in most instances this agenda turns out to be devastatingly harmful to people and environment. The PNG Public Service recruits officers not only on the basis of bureaucratic performance and qualifications but also on a commitment to tribal values. The luluais and tultuls received their orders from the Kiaps (Rowley, 1986). Religious and moral education is therefore an essential part of every child or young person’s educational experience. They inserted considerable fear into the hearts and minds of the indigenous people, and were much despised. It saw its role as being restricted to policing; to maintaining social conditions necessary to maintain "orderly" economic activity (West, 1966:45). In colonised countries, on the other hand, there is a varying degree of complicity and resistance to colonial advances. So, from the point of view of this work, the key issues are: why and how have the notions of development become institutionalised in post-independence PNG? Only those who obtained the new western-style education were regarded as educated, since only they could meet the demands of the newly created State. Papua New Guinea Education System Papua New Guinea has an education system which emanates from the British and Australian education systems as the country’s colonial masters (Pau, 1993; Waiko, 1997). To the South of PNG lie the Torres Strait Islands, arguably part of Australia. 0 Reviews. PNG is no exception. But this training assumed that the colonial administrative structures would not change in any significant way after independence (Schaffer, 1978). It is a means to improve the quality of life of the people of the nation and of future generations. While accepting that colonialism is associated with political power and economic gains, Nandy adds that "colonialism is a state of mind" or a "psychological state rooted in earlier forms of social consciousness in both the colonisers and the colonised. The fast-flowing meandering rivers such as the Sepik and Fly, are another characteristic of this land. Dorney (1990:53) observes: Despite its inherited Westminster-style parliament and democratic institutions, PNG's political system has rapidly evolved its mores and distinctive practices ... To understand the peculiarities of PNG's post-independence politics, it is important to know how the politicians see their role. The "continuing influences" exerted by the aid donors inform the nature of development, policy programs and strategies and as such, often create great dilemmas for the recipient countries. Traditional colonisers such as missionaries, settlers, planters and administrators, have been replaced by international players operating at the global level rather than at the regional or national level. In effect, they became important cogs in the political and administrative machinery of the colonial state. As a result, the 1960s and 1970s witnessed a substantially increased enrolment of students in secondary schools. Conroy (1982:134) suggests: The Australian colonial style involved very heavy aid transfers, the creation of, in many ways, an impressive physical infrastructures and the development of extremely large bureaucracy. Blaut argues that Marx's explanation represents a highly Eurocentric view of history, and is framed by the limited knowledge he had of places outside Europe. His definition of development thus includes factors that are not only economic, but significantly also the non-economic, such as education, health and cultural issues (Fagerlind and Saha, 1989:29). Development must occur in ways which preserve resources for the future and which respect the multiplicity of social and cultural groups which make up the country and encourage them to make their unique contribution to the fabric of the nation. Yet, while they recognised the inevitability and desirability of independence, the reports were nevertheless framed within a colonial mode of thinking. And finally, while independence movements in Papua and New Guinea were not as extensive, nor as passionate, as in a number of other countries such as India and Malaya, there were beginning to surface isolated cases of indigenous demands for self-government. The colonised, although manipulated to some extent, are nevertheless willing partners. The children who have become educated in western style education have mostly moved away from the communities to which they once belonged. Education - Education - Education in British colonies and former colonies: In the British colonies, as elsewhere, religious missions were instrumental in introducing European-style education. 1 Religious education has a statutory position in Scottish education, relating to schools but not to pre-school centres. It cannot be denied, however, that between the end of the Second World War in 1945 and 1973, when the Territory was granted a measure of self-government, Australia did much to develop Papua and New Guinea; but what remains an open question is Australia's motivations and for whom its investment was productive. In terms of this linear view of history (Said, 1985), the people of PNG were primitive and could be controlled in much the same way as animals and physical objects. In the post-independence era, while the educational emphasis may have become somewhat secular, the rhetoric concerning the importance of education in PNG's economic development has intensified. h�. Richer nations no longer have an interest in administering the poorer nations; rather there is now a pattern of economic exploitation and ideological control through the operations of an international capitalism that is not confined to national boundaries. Through the existing education system, India has pro­duced in the last five decades number of scientists, professionals and technocrats who have excelled in their fields and made a mark at the na­tional and international levels. Whilst these altruistic views were no doubt held in all sincerity, the colonisers also had another agenda, which related to their wider self-interests. Gunnar Myrdal, who was the first theorist to put forward this model, argued that the notion of development referred to the general improvement within the entire social system which makes a society distinctive. Abstract. There is thus a dialectical relationship between the traditions that remain and the trends that are emerging. The local companies have danced to the tune of these international interests. What this section has sought to demonstrate is that political independence in PNG by itself has not ended colonialism. The main focus of the study is education policy issued from “above”: that is, it is largely an examination of the contribution of Canberra officials and politicians towards education for future PNG autonomy and/or independence. The luluais were supposed to act as the "mausman" or spokesmen of the Government, and were responsible for collecting taxes, settling minor disputes and reporting major disputes to the Government. The consequences of this mode of thinking can be drastic and serious both for the coloniser and the colonised. The proclamation was read in Pidgin-English by one of the Australian military officers who stated that the natives were now under a new colonial master, with a new flag, and should therefore swear allegiance to the King of England (Biskup, Jinks & Nelson, 1968). Critiques of these systems suggest PNG's cultures should not be described in such western terms, but should instead be viewed in their own unique contexts. The actual practices differ from theory. Upon independence in 1975 the new Somare Government recognised the enormous challenges it faced in constructing an indigenous system of public administration. This study was conducted in four primary schools of Buma Yong area of Lae district of Morobe Province, PNG. This creates a situation of divided loyalties. As Waiko (1993:246) argues: On the one hand, individual members from each land group throughout the country have been obliged, by custom, to retain their identity with the village groups, and on the other hand, the same individuals have become citizens of the modern state. It was not surprising, therefore, that the missionaries sought to achieve their objectives by establishing schools. Given this demographic and historical complexity, the political cohesion of PNG as a nation-state remains an important issue in the country; as does the issue of the nature of the relationship between the State and its citizens. And when nation-states acquire power and prestige, they become recognised as civilisations. In 1950, the Territory public service was reorganised into a number of functional departments (Dwivedi and Paulias, 1986). This was clearly incompatible with the traditional political systems. They were often manipulated by the colonial officials in supporting positions that were not in the interests of the villages they represented. The expatriates needed to create an economic environment necessary for capital accumulation and quick profits. Although historians may not share the same views about the motives for this rapid colonial expansion in the ninetieth century, there is a general agreement that the colonial powers were in search of the three "Gs": namely, Gold, God and Glory. In its most basic form, the coloniser imposes and the colonised accepts. Jarrett, Anderson and Nguyen (1990:viii) provide a similar economic analysis: PNG has found microeconomic reforms more difficult to implement than macroeconomic reforms. We haven't found any reviews in … For example, expatriates such as Bruce Jeffcot, Karl Stack, Tim Neville, Barry Holloway and Peter Barker have all held ministries in post-independence PNG governments. To develop its cash economic sector, PNG has established initiatives in the use of non-renewable resources such as oil and minerals; the use of renewable resources, including agriculture, forestry and fisheries; and the development of industrial infrastructures through commercial statutory authorities and through private sector partnerships (Economic Policies and Strategies, 1991). From inside the book . In the hands of some Latin American writers, the theory of dependency is used as a deus ex machina explanation for everything which seems to be wrong with Latin American society. What people are saying - Write a review. On the one hand, much of the population has been exposed to a Western society which has many of the features of the Space Age. The name "Papua New Guinea" was thus a product of a colonial world-view which had assumed that the land had no history, and that its people could only be identified by their appearance, as Others who were not Europeans. Their role, however, was largely advisory--on questions of how to improve the quality of life in the villages. The councillors were selected by the villagers themselves rather than appointed by the Government. However, the system proved ineffective for a number of reasons: namely the lack of resources; the lack of its links with traditional structures; and the system's dependence on the much-feared Kiaps for its success. Papua had a system of multiple chiefs in the same tribe, who governed in a collaborative fashion. Every society has a history that will shape the present and future circumstances of its people and development. Australia was obliged to promote this principle. Superimposed upon these systems of village governance is the continuing political significance of the expatriates in PNG. In 1606, William Janz visited the south-east area of New Guinea. Colonialist ideologies had basically denied the existence of a traditional education system, and certainly had not legitimised it. However, the right of the national parliament to manage land in this way is questioned by the traditional landowners. Also, it could be argued that the extensive foreign economic activity makes it difficult for PNG to realise another of its key principles outlined in its National Constitution, namely, National Sovereignty and Self-Reliance. Information will be updated on a regualar basis and content can be expected to vary considerably over time. In particular, the commission was asked to look at the ways of introducing universal primary education and a more comprehensive system of secondary and tertiary education, including technical education, teacher training and medical, agricultural, and administrative education. Papua New Guineans now identify themselves with this new name. There was a tremendous demand for education that was far beyond the ability of the missions to provide. Modernisation theory has been criticised as being Eurocentric, evolutionary and economistic in its perspective. Thus, PNG continues to place considerable emphasis on the need for foreign investment, permitting the exploitation of its land and sea resources. It also serves to highlight the complexity of government in PNG, the diverse tribes of which may submit to a conflicting set of legal and traditional authorities. They depend on the analysts' broader ideological and political views, as well as on their disciplinary perspective. Most people from Africa, Asia and South America, live in the aftermath of colonialism, while others, for example the Indigenous Peoples of North America, Australia, New Zealand, Latin and Central America still live in colonial bondage. The members of the Councils were elected by the people. They felt that cultural change was inevitable once the natives accepted Christianity. In the language of post-modernism, colonialism rests on the assumptions of a grand narrative which implies the essential superiority of Western institutions of technology, cash-oriented economy and education system over all other forms. The cycle of dependency thus persists, with economic rationality subordinating all other policy concerns. They had viewed the Labor Government's attitudes towards the Territory as a major threat to their economic interests which, after almost fifty years in the Territory, had become entrenched. Local Education Authorities Primary education and secondary education became free for all children up to the age of 15. For the colonisers it can mean arrogance, vainglory, and narcissism. For them, education was no longer a collective responsibility of the members of the community but the responsibility of a few, who were believed to possess special expertise. Europe, Blaut maintains, should not be the centre of explanation; what was going on in the colonies was as much responsible for the expansion of colonialism as the actions of the colonisers. This principle was strongly supported by the League of Nations and later by the United Nations. The same applies to a range of cognate terms, for example, social change, growth, evolution, progress, advancement and modernisation (Fagerlind and Saha, 1989:4). It can also be defined as an ideological phenomenon (Fanon, 1966). Under the colonial rule, the notion of education in PNG had been transformed from a traditional into a "western" one. Many people are caught between traditional and modern societies, and in some cases people have difficulty in coping with the demands and obligations of the receding traditional society, and the demands and expectations of the emerging society. It is widely recognised, however, that currently the necessary conditions do not exist in PNG for any meaningful participation in the processes of economic development. After the War, the colony had been transferred to the League of Nations under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, Paris, and Australia was given the mandate to administer New Guinea. For the first time also he had raised the prospect of self-determination. Spybey (1992:1) contends: For a long time I have been concerned that the sociology of development has become too compartmentalized in its deep obsession with the modernization theory - dependency theory debate. But this cannot be the case as long as PNG's economy is controlled, exploited and dominated by foreign individuals and companies. The Report was very critical of the Australian administration and recommended a more comprehensive program of political, economic and educational development and more rapid progress towards independence (Downs, 1980:238-251). In the article The Kiaps played a powerful role: as administrators, as police officers and as magistrates rolled into one position. Such a bureaucracy was considered essential for achieving the State's cohesion and the nation's identity. Colonialism is not only expressed in political and economic forms. Foreign capital often comes with a range of conditions within the framework of which the government is able to develop its domestic policies. Not surprisingly, this government view is shared by the World Bank Report (1988:xi) which has argued: PNG faces major development challenges in the years ahead. Contact:  John Evans, by The background to PNG is presented around three key arguments. This administrative arrangement was noteworthy for a number of reasons (Reed, 1983). some Western education, an African had a chance at a lifestyle that up to that time he or she could only read about in Western school textbooks. In PNG, there does not appear to be a determined political movement to change the name by which the country is currently identified, though the issue has been talked about in general terms from time to time. Those local companies that have been able to develop have done so in collaboration with multinational corporations which are often linked to major financial institutions such as the World Bank, the Asian Bank and the International Monetary Fund. It represents a certain cultural continuity and carries a certain cultural baggage" (1983, pp 1-2). The administrative division of the country into regions, provinces and districts that had been established by the German colonial authorities has also remained intact. However, the friction also demonstrates the arbitrary nature of the colonial construct of boundaries which took no account of traditional family and cultural ties. Between 1880 and 1900, most parts of Africa were effectively under colonial administration (Boehan, 1987:27). New modes of production were created, altering the nature of power arrangements both within Europe and in the colonies. We have little or no experience of social survival detached from the land. This process is cyclical, but nonetheless universal in its historical character. After the Second World War, there was a shift in policy emphasis away from subsistence economy to cash (urban) economy. Although the draft of the post-independence five year education plan included vernacular languages for basic education, the National Executive Council did not approve the plan, and PNG continued the colonial policy of English for all levels of formal education. The ruling group can be either similar or different in their way of life from those who are ruled. In each District the work of the Kiaps was co-ordinated by Commissioners who were in turn accountable to the colonial Administrator in Port Moresby. And dependency theories the processes of colonialism, the public service was reorganised into a context. Islands alleges illegal incursions by the German colonial rule, the expatriates who were in turn, exercised their through! As Papua New colonial education in png pdf is a nation of many contrasts -- many languages many... Colonisers ( Bonney, 1982 ) copper mines in the Philippines the public debate in PNG educational administration problem extensive. 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